Bus topology is a network setup where all devices share a single central communication cable (bus). Elaboration: Example: Older Ethernet networks used a coaxial bus topology, where all computers connected to a single cable.

Mesh topology is a network design where each device connects to multiple other devices, ensuring high reliability. Elaboration: Example: A wireless mesh network (WMN) in smart cities, where multiple Wi-Fi routers interconnect for seamless coverage.

Hub-and-Spoke topology is a network design where multiple devices (spokes) connect to a central hub, which manages communication. Elaboration: Example: A corporate VPN where branch offices (spokes) connect to a central headquarters (hub).

The TCP/IP model is a four-layer networking model used for internet communication, consisting of Application, Transport, Internet, and Network Interface layers. Elaboration: Example: When you send an email, the TCP/IP stack ensures the message is transmitted and received correctly over the internet.

IPv6 (Internet Protocol version 6) is a 128-bit addressing system designed to replace IPv4 and support a vast number of unique addresses. Elaboration: Example: A typical IPv6 address looks like this: 2001:0db8:85a3::8a2e:0370:7334 Most modern devices and ISPs now support IPv6.

IPv4 (Internet Protocol version 4) is a 32-bit addressing system used to uniquely identify devices on a network. Elaboration: Example: A typical IPv4 address looks like this: 192.168.1.1 This is often used for local networks and router configurations.

The Application Layer (Layer 7 of the OSI model) provides the interface for end-users and applications to communicate over a network. Elaboration: Example: When you visit a website, the Application Layer (HTTP/HTTPS) ensures that web content is displayed correctly in your browser.

The Transport Layer (Layer 4 of the OSI model) is responsible for end-to-end communication, error handling, and flow control between devices. Elaboration: Example: When loading a website, the Transport Layer ensures that all TCP packets are received and reassembled in the correct order.

The Network Layer (Layer 3 of the OSI model) is responsible for routing packets between different networks using logical addressing (IP addresses). Elaboration: Example: A router operates at the Network Layer by forwarding packets from one network to another using IP addresses.

The Data Link Layer is Layer 2 of the OSI model, responsible for node-to-node data transfer and error detection/correction. Elaboration: Example: In Ethernet networks, the Data Link Layer ensures that data packets are sent to the correct MAC address within a LAN.